The emergence of the science of Zoology

Some 2,300 years ago, the Greek philosopher Aristotle collected animals, dissected them, and wrote extensive descriptions of their anatomy. He grouped together animals with similar characteristics, described the social organization of bees, the embryological development of chickens, and distinguished whales and dolphins from fish. Modem scientists point to Aristotle as the father of the scientific method. In the centuries after Aristotle’s era, however, superstitions and fantasies about animals often buried facts. For example, after the fall of Rome, a book called the Physiologus by an unknown author examined 49 different animals (some fictional, such as the unicorn), giving each an allegorical interpretation. The Physiologus gained popularity as a teaching companion for the Bible and remained in widespread use for more than a thousand years.

In the 12th and 13th centuries, zoology - the study of animals and animal life - emerged as a science, driven by the work of the German scholar St. Albertus Magnus (ca. 1193-1280). Magnus rejected the superstitions associated with biology and reintroduced the work of Aristotle. In the 15th and 16th centuries, Leonardo da Vinci dissected and compared the structure of human and animals, establishing the concept of homology, the correspondence of parts in different kinds of animals.

The First Clock

The first "clock,” the gnomon, was invented in the 3rd millennium B.C. and has been attributed to both the Chinese and the Chaldeans. The gnomon was the precursor of the sundial, invented, according to some sources, by Anaximander of Miletus (Greece) in the 6^th century B.C. and, according to others, by the Chinese and the Egyptians at a much earlier date.

The first artificial clock the water clock, or clepsydra, appeared at about the same time. The Egyptians in 3000 used the clepsydra alongside the sundial. (Inventions and Discoveries)

The numbering system used for U.S. Highways

Odd-numbered highways move north and south, while those with even numbers move east and west. Highways with one- or two-digit numbers are through routes, often long ones used for distance driving. Three-digit routes that begin with an even number are usually beltways around a city. Three-digit routes that begin with an odd number are spur routes in a city or town. (The Book of Answers, by Barbara Berliner)

Who invented the peace symbol?

It was created in 1958 as a nuclear disarmament symbol by the Direct Action Committee, and it was first shown that year at peace marches in England. The forked symbol is actually a composite of the semaphore signals N and D, representing nuclear disarmament. (The Book of Answers, by Barbara Berliner)

What's in a Face? - male mandrill

The male mandrill beats even the king vulture in the colorful face category. The mandrill, a kind of baboon, is an endangered species found in the rain forests of Africa. Only the males sport these vivid red and blue markings. (Grolier New Book of Knowledge Encyclopedia)

The five qualities that happy families have

Modern living puts a strain on family harmony, but there are things we can do to keep the home fires burning brightly. Experts point to at least five qualities that happy families have:

• love

• appreciation for each other

• open communication

• a willingness to spend time together

• strong leadership

Most specialists say that a loving family starts with a loving marriage. It's the flame that lights the stove that warms the house. "The family is a by-product of the relationship between husband and wife," says Daniel Araoz, Ed.D., past president of the Academy of Psychologists in Marital Sex and Family Therapy, a division of the American Psychological Association.

"The family will stay strong only if the couple keeps the original motivation that brought them together," he says. "They need to feel they are happier together than they are alone, and that they accept each other as they accept themselves. If a couple has those feelings, they'll be passed along to the children."

Broad functional components of human brain

('Boost Your Brain Power', by Ellen Michaud, Russell Wild and the editors of Prevention Magazine)

keeping brain drain at bay

If you need another reason to eat right and exercise, remember this one: These habits will not only keep your body in shape but may also preserve your memory and mental clarity.

Take the oldest diet advice you've ever heard: Eat your vegetables. Researchers at Chicago's Rush Institute for Healthy Aging found that people over 65 who consume about four servings per day slow cognitive decline by 38 percent. The same researchers found that eating fish as infrequently as once a week may lower the risk of Alzheimer's disease by up to 60 percent.

Jogging, swimming, and other forms of aerobic exercise-essential to any disease prevention plan - appear to protect the brain, too. One study of nearly 19,000 women found that the most active participants were the least likely to show signs of memory loss or fuzzy thinking. Studying, reading, and other mental challenges are also linked to a lower risk of dementia. The same is true of coping effectively with emotional stress.

Need further motivation? In a recent study, UCLA researchers asked a group of volunteers to eat healthy diets, exercise, perform brain teasers and memory exercises, and practice stress-reduction techniques. After two weeks, the participants improved their scores on word tests, and MRI scans showed that their brains worked more efficiently. The study's lead author, Gary W. Small, MD, director of the UCLA Center on Aging, concludes, "Living a healthy lifestyle can have an impact." (‘Simple Health Secrets’, by Reader’s Digest)

America’s Other Eagle

Though wise in so many ways, America's Founding Fathers were perhaps poor judges when it came to birds. By an act of Congress in 1782, they chose to adorn the Great Seal of the United States with the bald eagle, an undeniably beautiful bird, but also a mere scavenger and catcher of fish.

Presumably, the members of the Continental Congress sought a symbol of courage and independence to match their hopes for the infant republic; undoubtedly, they wanted a bird embodying the splendor of the new nation and its magnificent virgin lands. So how come they overlooked a choice as good as gold - the golden eagle, that is?

America's "other eagle" is more aggressive, more numerous, more skilled as a hunter, and even a bit larger than its white-headed cousin. Yet it has traditionally been overshadowed by the national symbol. Many Americans, particularly people in parts of the East, where the golden eagle infrequently flies, may not even know the bird exists. Meanwhile, in some areas of the West, the creature's taste for mutton long ago earned it the enmity of sheep ranchers. Today a symbol of the country's wide-open spaces, the magnificent raptor is also a lightning rod for controversy.

Weighing up to 13 pounds (6 kilograms) and with a wingspan of 7 feet (2 meters) or more, the golden eagle is one of the world's largest birds of prey. In North America the only larger raptor is the nearly extinct California condor, now confined to zoos. With that great size comes power, "truly awesome power," in the words of Mike Kochert, research leader at the Snake River Birds of Prey Area in Idaho. "Some smaller raptors may be more aggressive, but for pure energy on the wing," he says, " the golden eagle is tops. "

Early Music (4000 B.C. - 400 A.D.)

Archeological findings of ancient instruments demonstrate that humans have made music from the earliest times. While we don't know how this early music sounded, it's clear that Western music, as we know it, evolved from ancient Near Eastern culture.

Ancient Egyptian society regarded music as a gift from the gods. The appearance and the sound of early musical instruments had symbolic significance in Egyptian culture, where music played an important role in religious practice.

Some of the earliest-known instruments were stringed harps and lutes, known to be played in Egypt as early as 4000 B.C.; lyres and double clarinets were played as early as 3500 B.C. and percussion instruments were added to Egyptian orchestral music ca. 2000 B.C., while the tambourine was known to be used by the Hittites ca. 1500 B.C., along with the guitar, lyre, and trumpet.

All ancient Mesopotamian societies - including the kingdoms of Akkadia, Assyria, Babylonia, Chaldea, and Sumeria - made music central to their religious rites and festivals. Starting around 1800 B.C., Babylonian liturgical services were known to include a variety of psalms and hymns. The musical style was antiphonal, with two different voices alternating in chant. Instruments of the time included harps, flutes, drums, and lyres.

The 1960s – a time of dramatic political and cultural upheaval

The 1960s were a time of dramatic political and cultural upheaval both in the United States and around the globe. Many date the decade's true cultural beginning to November 22, 1963, when President John E Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas, Texas. Kennedy's shocking murder seemed to be the starting point of one of the nation's most turbulent eras, a time marked by further assassinations, urban riots, mass protests, failed presidencies, an unpopular war, and new demands for equal rights and social justice. In that sense, the tumult of the 1960s did not truly end until noon on Aug. 9, 1974, when Richard Nixon became the first U.S. president to resign his office in the wake of the Watergate scandal.

It was Kennedy himself who detected change in the air as he sought to become the nation's first Roman Catholic president in 1960. Kennedy's campaign was based on an explicit critique of the 1950s and the gray-flannel administration of President Dwight D. Eisenhower. Kennedy, as the Democratic Party's nominee, argued that it was time to get the country moving again, a sentiment that many young people - the advance guard of that giant cohort known as the "baby boom” - shared.

But in fields far removed from the campaign trail, the country was already moving in a new direction. Leading the way were thousands of ordinary African Americans who were demanding an end to blatant discrimination in the South and equal justice throughout the country. The civil rights movement was already a powerful force by the time the calendar turned from 1959 to 1960. The new decade ushered in not the movement’s birth but its maturity. (The New York Times ‘Smarter by Sunday – 52 Weekends of Essential Knowledge for the Curious Mind’)

Is an airplane’s black box actually black?

No, it is orange. Inside the box, a stainless-steel tape contains information on the airspeed, altitude, and vertical acceleration. A second orange box contains a tape of the last half-hour of conversation in the cockpit. (The Book of Answers, by Barbara Berliner) 

What language contains the most words?

English is the wordiest language, with approximately 455,000 active words and 700,000 dead words. (The Book of Answers, by Barbara Berliner)

The many health benefits of garlic

Garlic is an herb. It is best known as a flavoring for food. But over the years, garlic has been used as a medicine to prevent or treat a wide range of diseases and conditions. The fresh clove or supplements made from the clove are used for medicine.

Garlic is used for many conditions related to the heart and blood system. These conditions include high blood pressure, high cholesterol, coronary heart disease, heart attack, and “hardening of the arteries” (atherosclerosis). Some of these uses are supported by science. Garlic actually may be effective in slowing the development of atherosclerosis and seems to be able to modestly reduce blood pressure.

Some people use garlic to prevent colon cancer, rectal cancer, stomach cancer, breast cancer, prostate cancer, and lung cancer. It is also used to treat prostate cancer and bladder cancer.

Garlic has been tried for treating an enlarged prostate (benign prostatic hyperplasia; BPH), diabetes, osteoarthritis, hayfever (allergic rhinitis), traveler's diarrhea, high blood pressure late in pregnancy (pre-eclampsia), cold and flu. It is also used for building the immune system, preventing tick bites, and preventing and treating bacterial and fungal infections.

Other uses include treatment of fever, coughs, headache, stomach ache, sinus congestion, gout, rheumatism, hemorrhoids, asthma, bronchitis, shortness of breath, low blood pressure, low blood sugar, high blood sugar, and snakebites. It is also used for fighting stress and fatigue, and maintaining healthy liver function.

Animal products and heart disease

When it comes to heart disease, the evidence against animal products has today become so convincing and so thorough that even many in the livestock industry can see the handwriting on the wall. Dr. Peter R. Cheeke is a professor of animal science at Oregon State University and serves on the editorial boards of the Journal of Animal Science and Animal Feed Science and Technology. In his widely used animal science textbook, he says,

"Many studies, involving hundreds of thousands of people, have shown . . . a positive relationship between coronary heart disease and serum (blood) cholesterol. The higher the serum cholesterol, the higher the risk for coronary heart disease. Populations in which the average serum cholesterol level is (low) . . . are those on the lower end of the per capita meat consumption scale, while those (with high cholesterol levels) are populations with high intakes of animal products. . . . It's more useful to the livestock industries and animal scientists to come to grips with the demonstrated relationships among saturated fat and cholesterol intakes and coronary heart disease, than to claim that there is no relationship or that there's some sort of conspiracy against animal products by the medical community." (‘The Food Revolution: how your diet can help save your life and our world’, by John Robbins) 

The reason why twenty-one is considered the age of legal adulthood

The practice grew out of British common law. Before the Norman invasion, thirteen or fourteen was considered the age of adulthood, at least among the nobility. But during battles, it was observed that thirteen – and fourteen-year-old nobles were not large or strong enough to carry the heavy armor and lance used in fighting. The age was changed to nineteen and then raised to twenty-one, because nineteen-year-olds who inherited estates did not gain their property until two years later, owing to the lengthy legal processes involved. (The Book of Answers, by Barbara Berliner)

Emergence of modern European novel

While fiction has been a part of Western culture since the time of Homer and the ancient Greeks, the modem European novel did not emerge until the early 17th century. Derived from the Italian word novella, the term novel implied the newness of the form. In other European languages, the novel is known as a roman, which refers to the romances of the medieval period. At its most basic level, a novel is defined as an extended prose narrative. The modem elements of the novel include characterization, plot, and theme.

The novel first appeared in Spain in the form of Miguel de Cervantes's two-volume work, Don Quixote de la Mancha (1605-15). Written in the picaresque (from picaro or "rogue”) style, it depicts in episodic form the adventures of a poor, roguish hero as he travels throughout Spain, surviving by his wits. About 50 years after appearing in Spain, the novel became popular in Germany, then France, England, and much later, Russia. (The New York Times ‘Smarter by Sunday – 52 Weekends of Essential Knowledge for the Curious Mind’)

The ideal ratio of total cholesterol to HDL

Another important risk factor in determining your risk of heart disease is the ratio of your total cholesterol to your HDL (highdensity lipoprotein) level. The higher the ratio, the greater your danger of heart disease. The ideal ratio of total cholesterol to HDL is 3.0 to 1 or lower. The average American male's ratio is 5.1 to 1." The average vegetarian's ratio, on the other hand, is 2.9 to 1." (‘The Food Revolution: how your diet can help save your life and our world’, by John Robbins)

Why is radon a hazard?

Radon is a colorless, odorless, tasteless, radioactive gaseous element produced by the radioactive decay of radium. Its three naturally occurring isotopes are found in many natural materials, such as soil, rocks, well water, and building materials. Because the gas is continually released into the air, it makes up the largest source of radiation that, humans encounter. Some believe that radon may be a significant cause of cancer, especially lung cancer. It has been estimated that radon may cause as much as l0%, or 5,000 to 20,000 cases, of lung cancer deaths annually. Smokers seem to be at a higher risk than nonsmokers. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) recommends that the level should not be more than 4 picocuries per liter. The estimated national average is 1.5 picocuries per liter. Because EPA's "safe level" is equivalent to 200 chest x-rays per year, others believe that lower levels should be established. The American Society of Heating, Refrigeration, and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) recommends 2 picocuries/liter. The EPA estimates that nationally 8% to 12% of all houses are above the 4 picocuries/liter; whereas in another survey in 1987, it was estimated that 21% of homes were above this level. (The Handy Science Answer Book, compiled by the Science and Technology department of the Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh)

Cholesterol and its effect on one’s health

Cholesterol is the complex alcohol constituent of all animal fats and oils. It can be activated to form vitamin D. Cholesterol is one of a group of compounds known as sterols and is related to such other sterols as the sex hormones and the hormones of the adrenal cortex.

A close relationship exists among levels of blood cholesterol in the body, those of other fats or lipids, and the development of atherosclerosis. In this disorder, plaques containing cholesterol are deposited on the walls of arteries, particularly those of small and medium size, reducing their inside diameter and the flow of blood. Clotting of blood, such as may occur in the coronary arteries to cause a heart attack, is most likely to develop at places where arterial walls are roughened by such plaques.

Although many foods, particularly dairy products and meat fat, contain cholesterol, the body also synthesizes this sterol from cholesterol-free substances. Nevertheless, investigation indicates that a cholesterol-rich diet causes abnormally high levels of cholesterol and the related fats and lipids in the blood. Evidence strongly indicates that people with such high levels are more likely to develop atherosclerosis and heart attacks than those with lower levels. Also significant is the fact that scientists have identified two forms of cholesterol-carrying proteins in the blood, called high-density and low-density lipoproteins. The low-density form is thought to promote atherosclerosis, whereas the high-density component may retard it. In 1984, the United States National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute reported results of a study indicating that high levels of low-density lipoproteins also increased the risk of heart attacks and heart disease. (Encarta encyclopedia)

Why is exposure to asbestos a health hazard?

Exposure to asbestos has long been known to cause asbestosis. This is a chronic, restrictive lung disease caused by the inhalation of tiny mineral asbestos fibers, which, scar lung tissues. Asbestos has also been linked with cancers of the larynx, pharynx, oral cavity, pancreas, kidneys, ovaries, and gastrointestinal tract. The American Lung Association reports that prolonged exposure doubles the likelihood that a smoker will develop lung cancer. It takes cancer 15 to 30 years to develop from asbestos. These, fibers were used in building materials between 1900 and early 1970s as insulation for walls and pipes, as fireproofing for walls and fireplaces, in soundproofing and in acoustic ceiling tiles, as a strengthener for vinyl flooring and joint compounds, and as a paint texturizer. Asbestos poses a health hazard only if the tiny fibers are released into the air, but this can happen with any normal fraying or cracking. Asbestos removal aggravates this normal process and multiplies the danger level - it should only be handled by a contractor trained in handling asbestos. Once released, the particles can hang suspended in the air for more than 20 hours. (The Handy Science Answer Book, compiled by the Science and Technology department of the Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh)

Lightning

It’s the form of visible electric discharge between rain clouds or between a rain cloud and the earth. The discharge is seen in the form of a brilliant arc, sometimes several kilometers long, stretching between the discharge points. The discharge also sets up a sound wave that is heard as thunder.

How rain clouds become charged is not fully understood, but most rain clouds are negatively charged at the base and positively charged at the top. The various hypotheses that explain how the polarization occurs may be divided into two categories: those that require ice and those that do not. Most meteorologists believe, however, that ice is a necessary factor, because lightning is not usually observed until ice has formed in the upper layers of thunderclouds. Experiments have shown that when dilute solutions of water are frozen the ice gains a negative charge but the water retains a positive charge. If, after freezing has started, rising air tears small droplets of water away from the frozen particles, the droplets are concentrated in the upper part of the cloud and the larger ice particles fall toward the base. On the other hand, experiments have also shown that large, swiftly falling drops of water become negatively charged whereas small, slowly falling drops become positively charged. The polarization of a thundercloud may thus be due to the rates at which large and small raindrops fall. However formed, the negative charge at the base of the cloud induces a positive charge on the earth beneath it, which acts as the second plate of a huge capacitor. When the electrical potential between two clouds or between a cloud and the earth reaches a sufficiently high value—about 10,000 volts (V) per centimeter (cm) or about 25,000 V/in. (a volt is a measure of electrical potential; for comparison, the potential supplied by an ordinary electrical outlet in the United States is 110 V)—the air becomes ionized along a narrow path and a lightning flash results. Many meteorologists believe that this is how a negative charge is carried to the ground and the total negative charge of the surface of the earth is maintained..

How Monday got its name

The Romans called the second day of the week dies lunae, or day of the moon. Modern languages that come from Latin have similar names- lundi; in French, and lunes in Spanish. But the groups that spoke Germanic languages substituted their own word for the moon and came up with Monandag, which developed into the modern English Monday.

In ancient times, Monday was considered an unlucky day. This may have been because there were many superstitions about the moon. Some people even thought that gazing at the moon could drive a person insane. (In fact, the word "lunacy" comes from the Latin word for moon.) Monday was unpopular for another reason in days gone by. It was washday - and washing all a family's clothes by hand was a lot of work.

Even today, Monday is an unpopular day. This has less to do with superstition than with the fact that Monday marks the end of the weekend. After two days off, most people have to wake up early and head back to school or work. But some Mondays are better - in the United States and a number of other countries, many holidays fall on Mondays. And that gives everyone a three-day weekend. (Grolier New Book of Knowledge Encyclopedia)

The Disarming Armadillos – helped us with the discovery of leprosy vaccine

On the surface, the armadillo hardly seems like celebrity material. Its body looks like a conglomeration of some of nature's most bizarre features: the figure of an overgrown sow bug, possumlike ears, turtle feet, lizard skin, and a dinosaur's tail. Draped over its back is a thick, medieval-looking cape called a carapace. Patches of coarse hair cover its armored body, and scent glands at the base of its tail give off a pungent, musky odor. "You could say it's not an animal we humans can easily relate to," says armadillo expert Eleanor Storrs, a professor of biology at the Florida Institute of Technology in Melbourne. Even so, a remarkable discovery she made in the 80’s thrust the creature from the shadows of anonymity into the glare of scientific fame: the armadillo is one of the few creatures besides people that can contract leprosy.

The discovery toppled a barrier that had stalled research on the disease for more than a century, and in the process pushed the armadillo into a position of importance. Now, however, many researchers believe the leprosy connection may just scratch the surface of the animal's trove of secrets.

"It's really a remarkable animal, and there's still so little known about it," says Storrs, who first became fascinated by the creatures nearly three decades ago. Since then the 62-year-old biochemist, who is director of the school's Comparative Mammology Laboratory, has found that under the armadillo's primitive upholstery lies a shy but intriguing animal with a vast repertoire of unusual traits. The more she peers under the armor, she says, the more remarkable it becomes.

Birth of a Tornado

A mesocyclone (or supercell) is a highly developed and dangerous thunderstorm. As its central updraft spirals skyward at 60 miles per hour, reaching heights of more than 45,000 feet, a bulging wall cloud starts protruding from the storm's base. The wall cloud's core may begin to rotate rapidly, leading it to lower a spinning funnel, which usually evolves into a tornado.

Tornadoes can strike anywhere in the United States, which has more tornadoes than any other country. (A tornado is any rapidly rotating column of air that touches the ground. In the air, it's called a funnel cloud.) Tornadoes are most apt to occur during the late-afternoon and evening hours in the spring and fall, when the air is least stable.

"First there has to be a favorable area for thunderstorms to form - an unstable air mass in which the wind direction turns with height," says NSSL meteorologist Dr. Edward Brandes. "If the air is then lifted by a passing cold front or rises because of daytime heating, a mesocyclone - a severe thunderstorm with a powerful rotating updraft -may develop." With few exceptions, tornadoes are born mesocyclones. Once they spot a mesocyclone, forecasters know they're dealing with a fierce storm that produces 3/4-inch (1 3/4-centimeter) hail and winds blowing at a minimum of 60 miles (96.5 kilometers) per hour. Says NSSL meteorologist Doug Forsyth: "It also means there's a fifty-fifty chance of a tornado."

Probiotics & Prebiotics

Probiotics are beneficial bacteria in your intestinal tract that can improve health. And probiotics can also help improve immune system function. Probiotics interact with a specific part of your small intestine called the Peyer's patches, which directly signal your immune system to be vigilant.

"Some probiotic drink mixes out there contain beneficial probiotic organisms," says Patricia David, MD, MSPH, president of Healthy U in Columbus, Ohio. "And those are great if you're on the go. But I encourage people to obtain their probiofics directly from food sources whenever possible - these food sources include yogurt, buttermilk, goat's milk, coconut water, soy milk, miso, kim chi, and sauerkraut. For optimum probiotic exposure, look for yogurts and other probiotic products that contain bifldobacterium and/or lactobacilli.

Another way to increase your levels of beneficial immune-bolstering bacteria is to consume prebiotics - nondigestible food components that selectively stimulate the growth of "good" bacteria in the gastrointestinal tract, says Dr. David. "Natural sources of prebiotics include dandelion greens, spinach, kale, artichokes, legumes, onions, leeks, garlic, oatmeal, flaxseed, barley, and soy yogurt." she says. (‘The Doctor’s Book of Food Remedies’, by Selene Yeager and the Editors of ‘Prevention’ magazine)

Foods for Defense

The most powerful protection that you can give your immune system is to eat a well-balanced diet containing a variety of fruits, vegetables, whole grains, seeds and nuts, and seafood, says Dr. DiMilia. These foods are high in nutrients that can help keep your immune system healthy. What's more, some of these nutrients are antioxidants, which may help give the immune system an added boost.

Here's why antioxidants are so important. Every second, immune cells in your body are hit by a barrage of free radicals, harmful oxygen molecules that are created in enormous numbers every day. Since free radicals are missing an electron, they rush through your body, stealing electrons wherever they can find them. And every time they grab an electron, another cell is damaged.

The antioxidants in such foods as brightly colored fruits and vegetables, however, literally come between free radicals and healthy immune cells, offering up their own electrons. This neutralizes the free radicals, stopping them from doing further harm. In the process, your body's immune cells stay protected and strong.

Other Victims of Nazism

These Gypsy children were

sent to Auschwitz

In addition to Jews and the mentally and physically handicapped, the Nazis targeted several other groups for elimination. These included the Roma and the Sinti (Gypsies); homosexual men; and, to a lesser extent, Jehovah's Witnesses. The reason for their persecution was that, in one way or another, all of these groups threatened the purity of the German master race.

The Nazis' treatment of the Roma and Sinti in many ways mirrored their treatment of the Jews: Gypsies were considered racially inferior and targeted for genocide. A special camp was set up for them within Birkenau, where families were permitted to stay together until they were exterminated together. In the meantime, Dr. Josef Mengele performed brutal pseudoscientific experiments on many of the inmates. The Roma word for the Holocaust is Porajmos, meaning "the devouring."

With regard to gays, the Nazis were able to take advantage of the same sort of long-standing hatred and prejudice that many Germans felt toward Jews. In 1871, the year of Germany's unification, Paragraph 175 was added to the Criminal Code, stating, "Unnatural fornication, whether between persons of the male sex or of humans with beasts, is to be punished by imprisonment." During the sexually liberated Weimar period, an active campaign was undertaken to remove Paragraph 175 from the Criminal Code, but the effort failed. Thus, when the Nazis came to power in 1933, they didn't have to enact new laws to imprison homosexual men; they merely had to enforce the law already on the books.

Why is spilling salt considered bad luck?

One reason is because salt was once valuable and difficult to obtain. According to an old Norwegian superstition, a person is doomed to shed as many tears as it takes to dissolve the spilled salt. Another reason is the belief that spilled salt refers to the devil. In the German superstition, whoever spills salt engenders enmity: It is thought to be a direct act of the devil. And both the French and the Americans toss salt over the left shoulder to hit the devil in the eye. (The Book of Answers, by Barbara Berliner)

Is That So?

"[It's a] myth [that] people who eat vegetarian diets are healthier than people who eat meat." (National Cattlemen's Beef Association, displayed on the Web site of the National Cattlemen’s Beef Association in 2001)

"Studies indicate that vegetarians often have Lower morbidity and mortality rates...Not only is mortality from coronary artery disease lower in vegetarians than in non-vegetarians, but vegetarian diets have also been successful in arresting coronary artery disease. Scientific data suggest positive relationships between a vegetarian diet and reduced risk for...obesity, coronary artery disease, hypertension, diabetes mellitus, and some types of cancer." (American Dietetic Association Position Paper on Vegetarian Diets, Journal of the American Dietetic Association 97 (1997):1317-21)

(The Food Revolution: how your diet can help save your life and our world, by John Robbins)

What did the swastika stand for before Hitler appropriated it?

Before it became the Nazi symbol of Aryan superiority, the swastika had several meanings, all positive. In Sanskrit, the word swastika means "conducive to well-being." The Aryans of India believed swastikas represented the sun's motion across the sky, a symbol of its goodness and regenerative power. The Greeks and Persians believed it represented prosperity and happiness. Early Christians disguised the cross as a swastika to avoid persecution. North American Indian tribes used a similar symbol as a sign of peace. (The Book of Answers, by Barbara Berliner)

Where does earth end and space begin?

The answer isn't as simple as it may seem. The US government awards wings to astronauts who have flown in a powered vehicle to a height of 50 nautical miles (about 80 km) above Earth's surface. The rest of the world recognizes a spaceflight boundary of 100 kilometers; but even at this altitude, a spacecraft can circle Earth only a few times before its orbit decays due to atmospheric drag. To maintain orbit for a day or longer, a spacecraft must attain an altitude of at least 80 nautical miles (about 130 km). This may sound high up, but if Earth were a peach, then this altitude would be right at the top of its fuzz.

Even at an altitude of 300 kilometers, there's more than enough atmosphere to make knowledge of its effects essential. Beyond the drag it causes on spacecraft, the atmosphere at that height has a different composition than the air at sea level. Significantly, it contains a much higher percentage of atomic oxygen. Unlike molecular oxygen, which consists of two oxygen atoms bonded together, atomic oxygen is highly reactive and will attack spacecraft components susceptible to oxidation (rust), weakening and eroding them.

Sources of fuel worldwide – up until utilization of petroleum oil

When the steam engine was invented at the beginning of the 18^th century, most sources of fuel worldwide were the same as they had been for centuries: wood for cooking, oil for lighting, coal for heating and industry. The advent of commercially successful steam power in 1712 allowed for machinery and engines that were larger and more capable than any machines had ever been, catalyzing the dramatic changes of the Industrial Revolution. During the 19th century, continuous improvements to steam engine design transformed factories and built railroads across Europe and the Americas. Both inventors and engineers knew, however, that steam power had significant limitations. Steam must be generated by burning fuel, usually coal: and steam engines were large and bulky to allow for a furnace. The first steam-powered locomotive, invented in 1804 by the English engineer Richard Trevethick, was so heavy it broke the rails it rode on. From the earliest days of the Industrial Revolution, engineers looked for alternatives to steam that would allow for lighter, more powerful engines.

Internal combustion provided one such alternative. For centuries, inventors had imagined and tinkered with internal combustion engines; the medieval Arab scholar Al-Jazari described twin-cylinder reciprocating pistons in 1206, and Leonardo da Vinci  sketched compressionless engines in 1509. The modem combustion engine was the British inventor Robert Street's 1794 model, which used exploding gas to drive the pistons.

The discovery of Iron

The so-called Iron Age marks the period when iron replaced the use of bronze, toward the end of the 2nd millennium B.C. The discovery of iron was, however, made much earlier. A recent translation of a text from the Fayoum region shows that the Egyptians were capable of extracting iron ore some 3500 years B.C., but the technique used was rather rudimentary.

The use of iron was developed in Asia Minor (Mesopotamia). It was introduced into Greece toward 1200 B.C, where it permitted the growth of architecture: buildings could be made with blocks of stone joined by metal bolts. Iron also allowed beams of great length to be constructed because metal girders spread weight evenly. The Propylaea of the Acropolis in Athens are a magnificent example of this. (Inventions and Discoveries)

Sun's damaging rays

The ozone layer protects the Earth from the sun's ultraviolet rays. But the ozone layer is getting thinner, and more ultraviolet radiation is reaching the Earth. Health officials urge people to protect themselves from the sun's damaging rays. They recommend that people spend less time in the sun; wear protective clothing, including wide-brimmed hats, when in the sun; wear sunglasses that block ultraviolet rays; and apply sunscreen. (Grolier New Book of Knowledge Encyclopedia)

Food that is totally Rad!

The symbol you see here may look like a flower, but it's actually the symbol for food irradiation. Grocery shoppers in the United States got their first look at the symbol on January 24, 1992 when irradiated strawberries went on sale at a supermarket in North Miami Beach, Florida.

Irradiation is a process in which food is bombarded with low-level radiation in the form of gamma rays. The radiation doesn't make the food radioactive. Rather, it kills harmful bacteria, molds, and insects that cause spoilage and disease. Thus, supporters of the process say, irradiated foods can be shipped greater distances, can stay on supermarket shelves longer, and can protect people from getting food poisoning and other illnesses.

Opponents of food irradiation point out that gamma rays change the chemical structure of foods. This causes food to lose some of its nutritional value. Also , the radiation may create new compounds that are found only in irradiated foods and that haven't yet been identified or tested by scientist.

October 3rd, 1990: Germany becomes united

After 45 years of separation, West Germany and East Germany were reunited into a single nation. In effect, East Germany was absorbed into West Germany, and the East German government went out of existence. Berlin became the capital of the new Federal Republic of Germany. West German leaders, including President Richard von Weizsacker and Chancellor Helmut Kohl, kept their posts in the new government. (Grolier New Book of Knowledge Encyclopedia)

The odds of being killed on a motorcycle

1,250 to 1 (The Handy Science Answer Book, compiled by the Science and Technology department of the Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh)

The leading causes of death for young persons

For persons under the age of 21, accidents are the leading cause of death. Motor vehicle accidents account for almost half of all accidents involving this age group. However, the home appears to be the most dangerous place for infants (0 to 1 years). From birth to age one, the most prominent cause of accidental death is choking on food or objects placed in the mouth. Motor vehicle accidents rank second, and suffocation (from smothering by bedclothes, plastic bags, etc.) is the third leading cause. Fourth are fires, burns, etc.; the fifth is drowning. For children aged 1 to 4 years, the ranking is (1) motor vehicle accidents; (2) drowning; (3) fires and burns; (4) choking; and (5) falls. For ages 5 through 14, the order is (1) motor vehicle accidents; (2) drowning; (3) firearms; (4) poisoning; and (5) fires, burns, etc. From ages 15 to 24, motor vehicle accidents ranked first, drownings and poisoning tied for second and third place, and falls and fires, burns, etc., tied for fourth and fifth positions. (The Handy Science Answer Book, compiled by the Science and Technology department of the Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh)

Understanding the Neanderthals

Archaeological finds in Israel have shed new light on the role of the Neanderthal in human evolution. Remains of some 400 Neanderthal individuals have been found throughout Europe and in western Asia, dating from between 120,000 and 40,000 years ago. For many years, scientists had believed that either modem humans replaced Neanderthals, out-competing them because of superior intelligence, or that Neanderthals evolved into modem humans. The evidence from the Israel site suggests that modem-type humans coexisted with Neanderthals, possibly for as long as 50,000 years. The evidence also raises questions about interaction, cooperation, competition, and communication between these anatomically different humans.

Another important new discovery about Neanderthals was also made in Israel. At Kebara Cave was found the first well-preserved specimen of a Neanderthal hyoid bone --part of the structure of the throat used for speech. Scientists long had debated whether or not Neanderthals could speak, with part of the argument resting on anatomical differences between Neanderthals and Homo sapiens sapiens. The Neanderthal hyoid's similarity to the hyoid in modem humans would seem to imply a Neanderthal capability to make sounds similar to those of modem humans. (Funk & Wagnalls new Encyclopedia of Science Yearbook)

Infant Emotions

There is more to a baby's face than meets the eye. Psychologists at Wesleyan University in Middletown, Connecticut, documented greater emotional intensity on the right side of infants' faces while the youngsters smiled or frowned. Curiously, previous studies found emotional expressions are more intense on the left side of the face among right-handed adults.

Researchers think the adult pattern is influenced by the right side, or hemisphere, of the brain, which controls most muscles on the left side of the face and is critical in producing emotional displays. The left hemisphere controls much of the right side of the face, and is thought to inhibit emotional expressions, thus contributing to more intense expressions on the left side.

The examination of babies' faces suggests the right hemisphere matures more quickly during infancy, according to study director Catherine T. Best. At first, it apparently dampens the expression of spontaneous emotions, then gives up that function as the left hemisphere matures during childhood. Further study of facial expressions may clarify the ways in which infant and adult brains handle emotions, Best said.(Funk & Wagnalls new Encyclopedia of Science Yearbook)

Suspension bridge

The Chinese were building suspension bridges in the 6th century, although they existed prior to that in the form of drawbridges and footbridges made from vines. Suspension bridges were not built in the Western world until the 19^th century. James Finlay (U.S.) built the first suspension bridge in the United States in 1801, at Union Town, Pa., spanning Jacob’s Creek. (Inventions and Discoveries)

Kings Canyon National Park

Kings Canyon National Park is a national park in the southern Sierra Nevada, east of Fresno, California. The park was established in 1940 and covers 461,901 acres.  It incorporated General Grant National Park, established in 1890 to protect the General Grant Grove of giant sequoias. (Wikipedia encyclopedia)

February 11, 1990: Nelson Mandela Walks to Freedom

South African black nationalist leader Nelson Mandela , who spent 27 years in jail for his efforts to end white minority rule, was freed on February 11, 1990. During his years in prison , Mandela had helped focus worldwide attention on the struggle for racial equality in South Africa.

Blacks outnumber whites in South Africa by more than five to one, but whites ruled the country since its early days, until 1994. In 1948, apartheid - "separateness" -- became the government's official policy. Everyone was classified according to race. This classification determined who could vote, where people could live, which schools they could attend. The main goals of Mandela and many other people, including his fellow members of the African National Congress (ANC), were to end apartheid and establish black majority rule.

The Protestant Revolution

In the world today, the number of people who claim Christianity as their religion number approximately 2 billion. More than 1.1 billion are Roman Catholics; the rest are generally known as Protestants, a term coined in 1528 during the struggle of European Christians seeking a new way to salvation different from the one established and enforced by the Catholic Church for over 1,000 years. Given the fact that the power of the Catholic Church was so deeply entrenched, the success of Protestantism was a landmark event in Western history. Even mote extraordinary is the rapidity with which it took hold. In less than 40 years (1517-55), most of Europe was segregated into Catholic and Protestant towns, cities, and kingdoms. The roots of popular discontent with the church were rooted in a history riddled with corruption and overt sinfulness on the part of the clergy, the bishops, and even the pope himself. (The New York Times ‘Smarter by Sunday – 52 Weekends of Essential Knowledge for the Curious Mind’)

How often does the human eye blink?

The rate of blinking varies, but on the average the eye blinks once every five seconds or 17,000 times each day or 6.25 million times a year. (The Handy Science Answer Book, compiled by the Science and Technology department of the Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh)

Is it true that the nails and hair of a dead person continue to grow?

Between 12 and 18 hours after death, the body begins to dry out. That causes the tips of the fingers and the skin of the face to shrink, creating the illusion that the nails and hair have grown. (The Handy Science Answer Book, compiled by the Science and Technology department of the Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh)