The Earth’s origin and composition – earlier attempts to understand

Speculation about the origin and composition of our planet Earth is as old as civilization itself. Most religions contain some form of creation myth, and many hold that the natural forces governing the planet are embodied by gods and spirits. In antiquity, various philosophers propounded theories of the natural world. In the sixth century B.C., Pythagoras correctly noted that the Earth is a sphere, and Aristotle offered plausible, but incorrect, theories for volcanoes, earthquakes, fossils, and other natural phenomena. Pytheas described the tides and noted that they are controlled by the Moon. By the third Century B.C., Eratosthenes calculated the size of the Earth with reasonable precision.

Before the Enlightenment of the 18th century most European scientists were heavily influenced by religious belief, including the biblical story of creation. Scholars attempted to fix the age of Earth through a careful and literal reading of the Bible, concluding that creation took place about 6,000 years ago. But in the 17th century, a few scientists developed ideas that we still believe to be correct today. In 1669, the Danish scientist Nicolas Steno correctly explained fossils as the remains of long-dead organisms and introduced the idea that layers of rock, later called strata by geologists, were deposited at different times, with older layers lying below more recent ones. In Scotland in 1785, an amateur geologist, James Hutton, suggested that Earth's strata must have formed gradually. A half century later, another Scot, Sir Charles Lyell, argued strongly that one could explain geologic history perfectly well by pointing to the geological processes – the action of wind and water, earthquakes, and volcanoes - presently at work and observable on Earth. Lyell rejected the short time derived from the Bible and proposed a much greater period for the development and evolution of Earth. Lyell's notion of a vastly great "geologic time" made possible the evolutionary theory of Lyell's good friend Charles Darwin. It provided the time scale necessary for natural selection to take place. (The New York Times ‘Smarter by Sunday – 52 Weekends of Essential Knowledge for the Curious Mind’)

How long is the Grand Canyon?

The Grand Canyon, cut out by the Colorado River over a period of 15 million years in the northwest comer of Arizona, is the largest land gorge in the world. It is 4 to 13 miles (6.4 to 21 kilometers) wide at its brim, 4,000 to 5,500 feet (1,219 to 1,676 meters) deep, and 217 miles (349 kilometers) long, extending from the mouth of the Little Colorado River to Grand Wash Cliffs (and 277 miles, 600 feet or 445.88 kilometers if Marble Canyon is included).

However, it is not the deepest canyon in the United States; that distinction belongs to Kings Canyon, which runs through the Sierra and Sequoia National Forests near East Fresno, California, with its deepest point being 8,200 feet (2,500 meters). Hell's Canyon of the Snake River between Idaho and Oregon is the deepest United States canyon in low-relief territory. Also called the Grand Canyon of the Snake, it plunges 7,900 feet (2,408 meters) down from Devil Mountain to the Snake River. (The Handy Science Answer Book, compiled by the Science and Technology department of the Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh)

Apostle Peter

The sources of knowledge about Peter are the letters of Paul, written between 50 and 60 AD; the four canonical Gospels and Acts of the Apostles, written from about ad65 to the end of the 1st century; two canonical letters bearing Peter's name as author and probably written in the 2nd century by someone other than Peter; and a reference by a Roman presbyter named Gaius (flourished early 3rd century) to a “trophy” on Vatican hill memorializing the place of Peter's martyrdom or burial. In these sources several well-established traditions about Peter are found. He was called by Jesus to be a disciple, and he became prominent among the Twelve, often serving as their spokesman. At Caesarea Philippi he confessed Jesus to be the Messiah and was subsequently rebuked (see Mark 8:33) or praised (see Matthew 16:17) by Jesus for that confession. After Jesus' arrest, Peter denied being associated with him and suffered enormous self-reproach for having done so, but the first appearance of the risen Jesus was to Peter.

Peter played an important role in the early Christian church at Jerusalem, having received a special call to preach the gospel to his fellow Jews. In time, Peter came also to affirm the Christian mission to the Gentiles, whose chief advocate was the apostle Paul. Peter took part in a meeting in Jerusalem that focused decisively on the place of Gentiles in the church (see Acts 15). Against the faction of Jewish Christians who would have required converts to Christianity to be circumcised and to abide by Jewish dietary restrictions, Peter supported those who declared that the Christian message of salvation to all did not require that Gentiles adhere to specific legal and ritual precepts of Judaism.

Eat at Least 5 Servings of Fruit and Vegetable a Day

Emptier hospitals. Shorter lines at the pharmacy counter. Far fewer of the major diseases that disable and kill millions. If everyone followed the simple and delicious advice of our health experts by eating at least five servings of fruit and vegetables a day, the results would be nothing short of miraculous.

The fact is, we humans are designed to eat these foods by the fistful every day. Our bodies are meant to be flooded with a daily deluge of amazing chemicals called antioxidants that protect cells from damage. And we need them now more than ever. Modern life triggers the production of more free radicals in our bodies than ever before - thanks to fried foods (and simply to overeating!), to more pollution, to the fact that we're living longer, and perhaps even to a thinning atmosphere.

Free radicals are atoms or groups of atoms with an odd number of electrons. They form naturally when we digest food, convert blood sugar into energy, or are exposed to sunlight or pollution. Free radicals destroy cell walls or even worse, DNA itself. The result? Increased cancer risk, cholesterol that's more likely to burrow into artery walls, and damaged cartilage that can't cushion joints properly. Your body uses the antioxidants in fruits and vegetables to neutralize free radicals before they can do harm. Shortchange yourself, and you're essentially letting rogue elements take over your body.

Can carbs keep you disease free?

Many people are cutting down on carbs to keep their weight in check. A smart idea? That depends.

Most experts agree that carbs in the form of soda and sugary fruit drinks, store-bought baked goods (like muffins), packaged snacks, and sweets make blood sugar and blood fats (such as triglycerides) soar, raising your odds for type 2 diabetes, heart disease, and even some forms of cancer.

Stock up instead on "smart carbohydrates” - whole grains like oatmeal, barley, whole grain bread, and brown rice, as well as fruits, vegetables, and beans and you'll flood your body with powerful disease-fighting compounds. These strategies can help you replace refined carbs with more of the good stuff.

Say yes to breads and cereals with the word whole in the first ingredient. Give potatoes the night off. White potatoes and white rice make blood sugar soar; in comparison, whole grain side dishes such as barley, quinoa, and bulgur keep it lower and steadier.

Have beans for supper a few nights a week. Rinse canned beans to reduce excess sodium. Then toss 'em into soups, salads, casseroles, or pasta sauce or enjoy them with your favorite seasonings as a side dish.

Drink unsweetened iced tea or water. Besides adding hundreds of waist-widening calories, soda (even one can a day!) has been linked with a higher risk of diabetes, heart disease, and overweight. (‘Simple Health Secrets’, by Reader’s Digest) 

G7/G8 (Group of Seven/Group of Eight)

Formed in 1975 by the six biggest industrial democracies -- the United States, Japan, Germany, France, Britain, and Italy -- and joined by Canada a year later. Starting in 1991, the USSR, then Russia, began dropping by for post-summit conferences. In 1994 Russia became a regular visitor, and in 1998 it became a full participant in what now became the G8, although the G7 has continued to function alongside the formal summits, presumably just to confuse the average newspaper reader. These days, the G8 meets annually, and by turns, in the capital, another big-deal city (Montreal, Florence), or a jewel-like historic landmark or golf resort (Versailles, Williamsburg, Gleneagles) of the host nation, with everyone's finance minister (our Treasury secretary) and all the prime ministers (or presidents) in attendance, at which point it considers, and attempts to bring into line, matters of economic policy and planning, then schmoozes, often managing to work out an intractable problem or two over one of the six-course dinners prepared by the host country to show off the national cuisine. With old-style Kennedy-and-Khrushchev-type summit meetings largely a thing of the past, the G8 get-togethers have become some of the most important meetings in the world, real pileups of power and money at which issues as broad as terrorism and the environment are hashed out, often leading to the creation or resuscitation of some new international organization to "handle” the problem. (‘An Incomplete Education’, by Judy Jones and William Wilson)

How do colors affect one's moods?

According to the American Institute for Biosocial Research, "colors are electromagnetic wave bands of energy." Each color has its own wavelength. The wave bands stimulate chemicals in your eye, sending messages to the pituitary and pineal glands. These master endocrine glands regulate hormones and other physiological systems in the body. Stimulated by response to colors, glandular activities can alter moods, speed up heart rates, and increase brain activity. (The Handy Science Answer Book, compiled by the Science and Technology department of the Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh)

Modern Numerations

Around the 5th century AD., decimal position arithmetic appeared in India: it used 10 figures from 0 to 9 such as we know today. In 829 Mohammad Ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi (780-850) published a treatise on algebra in Baghdad in which he adopted this decimal system. A French monk named Gerbert became interested in the Arabic figures during his voyage (980) to Cordoba in Spain, and was able to spread the use of these symbols when he became Pope Sylvester II in April 999. However, it was not until Leonardo Fibonacci, known as Leonard of Pisa, through his Liber Abaci, written in 1202, that Arabic numbering began to spread throughout Europe. In 1440, thanks to the invention of printing, the shape of these 10 figures was definitively fixed. (‘Inventions and Discoveries’)

Numbers

Numbers were first written in the 3rd millennium B.C., as is attested to by the clay tablets discovered in Susa and Uruk (currently Warka in Iraq) and those from Nippur (Babylon, 2200 to 1350 B.C.). The Babylonian system of numeration is on a base of 60. Our time divisions are a vestige of this. There was no zero; missing units were simply indicated by a space.

The ancient Mayan system was on a base of 20 - the number of fingers and toes. This was a position system and included a final zero which was not an operator.

In the 5th century B.C. the Greeks used the letters of the alphabet. For units of one thousand, the nine first letters accompanied by an inferior accent to their left were used This system, which had no zero, was used for a thousand years.

Babylonian numeration was perfected in the 4th century B.C. by the appearance of the zero in mathematical texts. The zero was placed either at the beginning of a number or within a number, but never at the end. The word zero comes from sunya, which means "nothing" in Sanskrit; it became sifr in Arabic and was Latinized into zephirum by Leonardo Fibonacci. It was fixed at zero in 1491 by a Florentine treatise.

The Hebrews and Arabs adapted the Greek system for their own alphabets. Calculations were then made using abacuses. Numbers were represented by pebbles -- the word calculation derives from the word calculus, meaning pebble. (Adapted from ‘Inventions and Discoveries’)

The Impact of Enlightenment

Voltaire

As French urban society grew wealthier, it also became more literate. In academies and salons, where social distinctions among the wealthy ceased to be made, nobles and bourgeois began to debate philosophy and science with each other. Even artisans joined reading groups and began paying attention to the newspapers then cropping up all over the country.

This was the height of the Enlightenment, when a group of French writers known as philosophes spread the values of free inquiry and open debate throughout France and later across the rest of the Western world. At the core of their belief was the idea that reason was the basis for all human improvement. Inspired by the many advances recently made in science, they wanted to apply the same rational method to all forms of human endeavor, including political philosophy.

Because the phihophes despised irrationality, they frequently attacked the mysticism and religious intolerance of the Catholic Church. In 1762, for example, Voltaire (1694-1778) launched a public campaign to free Jean Calas, a Huguenot being put to death by the Languedoc parlement for allegedly murdering his son to prevent him from embracing Catholicism. Voltaire used the trumped-up Calas case to demonstrate the extent to which French public institutions had become infused with religious bigotry, but he couldn't save Calas.

Herbal Healing – its prehistoric roots

The healing properties of plants have not changed. What was a healing herb a thousand years ago is still a healing herb. Physicians of the ancient were expected to know their herbs. Plants gave healing powers to those who studied them, worked with them, and respected them. In many lands and in many times, healers spent good part of their lives in field and forest gathering green medicines. They remembered what they learned, and they passed it on.

Today we benefit from the accumulated herbal wisdom of the ages. Our special vantage point enables us to peer back through history, harvesting for our own benefit only those herbs that have stood the test of time.

But even the herbal uses that didn't pan out are fascinating. While the story of the healing herbs has its comic episodes, it's also a dramatic story of human sacrifice, complete with medical heroes - men and women whose work deserves to be recognized.

What is a healing herb? The word herb comes from the Latin for grass. Technically, herbs are plants that wither each autumn, plants other than shrubs or trees. But many shrubs and trees are used in herbal healing, such as barberry, bay laurel, and slippery elm, for example. To an herbalist, "healing herbs" include every plant with medicinal value

The plants that we know as healing herbs existed long before the first human appeared on earth. No one knows how long it took for humans to discover the curative power of plants, but prehistoric sites in Iraq show the Neanderthals used yarrow, marsh mallow, and other healing herbs some 60,000 years ago.

Why do all newborn babies have blue eyes?

The color of the iris gives the human eye its color. The amount of dark pigment, melanin, in the iris is what determines its color. In newborns the pigment is concentrated in the folds of the iris. When a baby is a few months old, the melanin moves to the surface of the iris and gives the baby his or her permanent eye color. (The Handy Science Answer Book, compiled by the Science and Technology department of the Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh)

What does it mean to have 20/20 vision?

Many people think that with 20/20 vision the eyesight is perfect, but it actually means that the eye can see clearly at 20 feet what a normal eye can see clearly at that distance. Some people can see even better – 20/15, for example. With their eagle eyes, they can view objects from 20 feet away with the same sharpness that a normal-sighted person would have to move in to 15 feet to achieve. (The Handy Science Answer Book, compiled by the Science and Technology department of the Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh)

Thunder

Thunder is the explosive sound produced by an ordinary lightning discharge. The lightning bolt heats the air around it so quickly (within a few millionths of a second) and to such a high temperature (about 10,000° C, or about 18,000° F) that the air molecules are pushed apart with great force, much like in an explosion. A wave of compressed air (a sound wave) moves out from the lightning bolt.

A lightning strike seems to be over very quickly, but thunder can last much longer, changing in pitch and loudness (see Sound). This happens for several reasons: the lightning bolt has an irregular shape; the air expands in all directions at once; lightning bolts overlap; and objects on the ground interfere with the sound. Because the lightning bolt is not straight and is at an angle to the vertical, not all parts of the bolt are the same distance from the listener, so sound from different places on the bolt reaches the listener at slightly different times. Also, sound from the far side of the lightning reaches the listener after sound from the near side. Lightning often occurs in groups of several bolts very close to each other, and sound waves from different bolts mix to form a continuous sound. Echoes from hills or other reflecting objects contribute to the rumbling effect.

Because sound travels more slowly than light, thunder is heard after the lightning is seen. The distance between an observer and the lightning bolt can be estimated by counting the number of seconds between the lightning and the thunder. The light reaches the observer almost instantaneously, but the sound travels at about 1.6 km (about 1 mi) every 5 seconds. Thunder can seldom be heard from more than 24 km (15 mi) away. (Encarta Encyclopedia)

Fungus - They range from tiny, single-celled organisms invisible to the naked eye to some of the largest living multi-cellular organisms.

Fungi are any member of a diverse group of organisms that—unlike plants and animals—obtain food by absorbing nutrients from an external source. The fossil record suggests that fungi were present 550 million years ago and may have evolved even earlier. Today thousands of different types of fungi grow on and absorb food from substances such as soil, wood, decaying organic matter, or living plants and other organisms. They range from tiny, single-celled organisms invisible to the naked eye to some of the largest living multi-cellular organisms. In Michigan for example, the underground portion of an individual Armillaria mushroom, a type of fungus, extends more than 12 hectares (30 acres). Other fungi are among the longest-lived organisms on Earth—some lichens, a living partnership of a fungus and an alga, are thought to be more than 4,500 years old.

A large and widely distributed group of organisms, fungi perform activities essential to the functioning of all natural ecosystems. They are among the foremost decomposers of organic matter, breaking down plant and animal remains and wastes into their chemical components. As such, fungi play a critical role in the recycling of minerals and carbon. Fungi’s value to humankind is inestimable. Certain types of fungi, including several types of mold, have proven extremely valuable in the synthesis of antibiotics and hormones used in medicine and of enzymes used in certain manufacturing processes. Some fungi, such as mushrooms and truffles, are considered tasty delicacies that enhance a wide variety of recipes. Not all fungi are beneficial—some damage agricultural crops, cause disease in animals and humans, and form poisonous toxins in food.

Pope Pius IX

Pope Pius IX (1792 -1878) was the head of the Catholic Church from 16 June 1846 to his death in 1878. He was the longest-reigning elected pope in the history of the Catholic Church—nearly 32 years. During his pontificate, he convened the First Vatican Council in 1869, which decreed papal infallibility.

Few popes of modern times have presided over so momentous a series of decisions and actions as Pius IX. During his reign the development of the modern papacy reached a kind of climax with the promulgation of the dogma of papal infallibility. 

It had long been taught that the church, as “the pillar and bulwark of the truth,” could not fall away from the truth of divine revelation and therefore was “indefectible” or even “infallible.” Inerrancy had likewise been claimed for the Bible by both Roman Catholic and Protestant theologians. As the visible head of that church and as the authorized custodian of the Bible, the pope had also been thought to possess a special gift of the Holy Spirit, enabling him to speak definitively on faith and morals. But this gift had not itself been identified in a definitive way. 

Languages – their primitive and evolutionary development

Human beings are unique in their use of language. Only humans have the innate, hardwired ability to employ a large vocabulary of words with a complex grammar to create language itself. Linguistic abilities are surprisingly uniform across the entire human species, and all normal human beings learn to speak the language of their native community.

Many theories exist concerning when and how language began, and because there are no fossil records related to the earliest linguistic development, the true beginnings of spoken language are lost in time. Early cultures believed that language was a gift from the gods, and the origins of language are an integral part of creation myths throughout world mythology. Ironically, the diversity of language is usually seen as a curse - a punishment for human arrogance or disobedience – a belief best exemplified by the "Tower of Babel" passage in Genesis, in the Hebrew Bible.

Although some scholars assume there was a primitive language system dating as far back as two million years, fully developed language is thought to have been an evolutionary innovation of Homo sapiens, which facilitated the spread of the species around the globe. Many scientists believe that at some point in their evolutionary development, humans developed larger and more sophisticated brains that allowed for the development of language, although there is no agreement on when this occurred. Richard Leakey, the noted paleoanthropologist, suggests that Homo sapiens did not originally possess the necessary anatomy to produce language until 300,000 years ago, while Steven Pinker, the cognitive scientist, argues that because all modem humans have identical language abilities, language must have emerged with the first appearance of modern humans about 200,000 years ago.

Designing for the Space Environment

When designing vehicles for Earth orbit, the most important force to take into account is gravity, which causes both linear acceleration and rotational torque. For example, unless the space shuttle orbiter fires its maneuvering thrusters, gravity will inevitably turn the orbiter so that its nose is pointing down and one wing is pointing in the direction of travel. Building spacecraft to be durable means carrying extra weight into orbit, which is expensive, but the alternative - building a light, flimsy vehicle - is dangerous, because gravity could easily deform it.

Spacecraft designers also have to take into account harmful solar radiation. The Sun produces both electromagnetic radiation (EMR) and penetrating charged particles (PCPs). Earth's atmosphere protects life on the surface from the harmful effects of high-energy EMR, just as the planet's magnetic field shields surface life from dangerous PCPs; but in low Earth orbit, where the atmosphere is thin and the magnetic field is weak, these defenses are inadequate.

EMR travels through substances as well as empty space in waves of energy that move at the speed of light. Light is itself a form of EMR, which is generated by the vibration of charged particles. Radio waves and microwaves are relatively benign forms of low-energy EMR. On the other hand, at the high-energy end of the electromagnetic spectrum (above the range of visible light), EMR becomes ionizing, which means that it can alter the structure of molecules, including molecules of human DNA. Ultraviolet (UV) light and X-rays are examples of high-energy EMR against which astronauts and electronic equipment need to be protected.

How did the dandelion get its name?

Not surprisingly, the name refers to a part of the lion. In England, before the sixteenth century, the weed was called lion's tooth because of its serrated leaf's resemblance to the lion's incisor. Later, the French translation - dent de lion - was adopted into English and eventually became anglicized to "dandelion." (The Book of Answers, by Barbara Berliner)

Sultan Abdu’l-Aziz

Abdu’l-Aziz (1830-1876), was the 32nd sultan of the Ottoman Empire and 2nd sultan of the Tanzimat period of Ottoman reforms (1839-1876). This reform era was built on the changes instituted under Sultan Mahmud II, who sought to centralize and modernize government during his reign from 1808 to 1839. The Tanzimat period was inaugurated by Abdu’l-Aziz’s brother, Sultan Abdu’l-Medjid I. Abdu’l-Aziz succeeded Abdu’l-Medjid I to power in 1861. The reforms instituted by Abdu’l-Medjid and continued by Abdu’l-Aziz were numerous and affected many areas of the government, including the election of officials and military service. The reforms were supported by many countries throughout Europe. In the end, however, these reforms failed to contain nationalism or to stave off foreign aggression or internal corruption.

In administration, a highly centralized provincial organization and bureaucracy began to replace the old fief system. Central executive functions were gradually distributed to newly established councils of experts, which evolved from advisory councils to more modern ministries. In the field of justice, the "men of the Tanzimat," as the reformers were known, tried to assure security of life, honor, and property for all subjects, regardless of race, religion, or wealth. The old system of internal communal organization was preserved, but non-Muslim members, called rayas, were given legal equality with Muslims.

Ancient Astronomy

The roots of astronomy extend to before written records, but it is clear that humans have always observed the sky. The earliest known records of astronomical observations come from the Sumerian and Babylonian cultures (in what is modern-day Iraq) and date from as far back as 3000 B.C. Careful observations by court-sponsored astronomers led to the first known star maps, the zodiac, and many of the other constellations still referred to today, as well as the sexigesimal (base-60) counting system on which our angular measures are based.

Babylonian astronomers knew the length of the year to high precision. These measurements were probably used for political and agricultural purposes. During the same epoch, a number of astronomical monuments, including Stonehenge, were being constructed as calendar devices around what is now Great Britain. Egyptian astronomers undertook similar cataloging and mapping work, using stars as references in alignment of construction projects like the Great Pyramids.

Greek philosophers were the first to speculate on the structure of the universe, but were constrained by philosophical traditions relying on pure geometrical forms. Aristotle (ca.350 B.C.), established a model of the universe described as nested spheres with the Earth at the center, while the Sun, Moon, planets and stars moved around the Earth in constant motion each with its own rate.

Is the moon ever actually blue?

The moon does occasionally appear blue because of dust conditions in the atmosphere. The most famous widely observed blue moon of recent times occurred on September 26, 1950, owing to dust raised by Canadian forest fires. (The Book of Answers, by Barbara Berliner)

What was the distribution of radioactive fallout after the Chernobyl accident in Byelorussia?

Radioactive fallout, containing the isotope cesium 137, and nuclear contamination covered an enormous area including Byelorussia, Latvia, Lithuania, the central portion of the then Soviet Union, the Scandinavian countries, the Ukraine, Poland, Austria, Czechoslovakia, Germany, Switzerland, northern Italy, eastern France, Romania, Bulgaria, Greece, Yugoslavia, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom. The fallout, extremely uneven because of the shifting wind patterns, extended 1,200 to 1,300 miles (1,930 to 2,090 kilometers) from the point of the accident. Roughly 5% of the reactor fuel or seven tons of fuel containing 50 to 100 million curies were released. Estimates of the effects of this fallout range from 28,000 to 100,000 deaths from cancer and genetic defects within the next 50 years. In particular, livestock in high rainfall areas received unacceptable dosages of radiation. (The Handy Science Answer Book, compiled by the Science and Technology department of the Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh)          

Charles Darwin and the Theory of Evolution

Charles Darwin, the son of a wealthy British doctor, was sent as a young man to study medicine in Edinburgh, then to Cambridge to study for the ministry. There he came under the influence of scientists and naturalists who inspired new interests in him. After a few years, his tutors suggested that he sail on a navy ship to South America, Australia, and various islands (most notably the Gblapagos, off the coast of Ecuador) to study the flora and fauna there.

Darwin's five-year voyage (1831-37) aboard the HMS Beagle would not only change his life, but the very way in which we understand life itself. It was on this trip that he made his first fossil discoveries, witnessed a volcanic eruption, and absorbed the concept of "deep time" explored in the recently published Principles of Geology by Charles Lyell. Darwin observed special adaptations organisms had for obtaining food and avoiding predators. He reasoned that organisms evolved from simpler states through what he called "survival of the fittest." Over time, he wrote, "the result of this [natural selection] would be the formation of a new species."

The single greatest risk factor for heart disease

Today, heart disease is the number one killer of Americans.[American Heart Association, Heart Attack and Angina Statistics, 1999] More people die from heart and blood vessel diseases each year in the United States than from all other causes of death combined.

What is the single greatest risk factor for heart disease? A high blood cholesterol level. [Roberts, William, "Atherosclerotic Risk Factors: Are There Ten or Is There Only One?", American Journal of Cardiology 64 (1989):552 ] And what is the single most important factor in raising blood cholesterol levels? The consumption of saturated fat. The correlations between cholesterol levels, saturated fat intake, and heart disease are among the strongest and most consistent in the history of world medical research. This is why every authoritative health body in the world, from the American Heart Association to the World Health Organization to the National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute, is calling for reductions in saturated fat consumption.

It is also, however, why the meat and dairy industries sometimes have not been happy with what has been learned. . . . (‘The Food Revolution: how your diet can help save your life and our world’, by John Robbins)

The invention of wristwatch

Two designers can claim to have invented the modern wristwatch: Louis Cartier (France), who in 1904 made one for the aviator Santos-Dumont; and, in the same year, Hans Wilsdorf (Switzerland), founder of Rolex. Earlier versions date back to around 1800, but they were essentially items of jewelry rather than a watchmaker's product. Wristwatches quickly achieved widespread popularity among women, but it was not until World War I that they were generally adopted by men. 

In 1910 Rolex produced the first wrist chronometer. 

(Inventions and Discoveries) 

The emergence of the science of Zoology

Some 2,300 years ago, the Greek philosopher Aristotle collected animals, dissected them, and wrote extensive descriptions of their anatomy. He grouped together animals with similar characteristics, described the social organization of bees, the embryological development of chickens, and distinguished whales and dolphins from fish. Modem scientists point to Aristotle as the father of the scientific method. In the centuries after Aristotle’s era, however, superstitions and fantasies about animals often buried facts. For example, after the fall of Rome, a book called the Physiologus by an unknown author examined 49 different animals (some fictional, such as the unicorn), giving each an allegorical interpretation. The Physiologus gained popularity as a teaching companion for the Bible and remained in widespread use for more than a thousand years.

In the 12th and 13th centuries, zoology - the study of animals and animal life - emerged as a science, driven by the work of the German scholar St. Albertus Magnus (ca. 1193-1280). Magnus rejected the superstitions associated with biology and reintroduced the work of Aristotle. In the 15th and 16th centuries, Leonardo da Vinci dissected and compared the structure of human and animals, establishing the concept of homology, the correspondence of parts in different kinds of animals.

The First Clock

The first "clock,” the gnomon, was invented in the 3rd millennium B.C. and has been attributed to both the Chinese and the Chaldeans. The gnomon was the precursor of the sundial, invented, according to some sources, by Anaximander of Miletus (Greece) in the 6^th century B.C. and, according to others, by the Chinese and the Egyptians at a much earlier date.

The first artificial clock the water clock, or clepsydra, appeared at about the same time. The Egyptians in 3000 used the clepsydra alongside the sundial. (Inventions and Discoveries)

The numbering system used for U.S. Highways

Odd-numbered highways move north and south, while those with even numbers move east and west. Highways with one- or two-digit numbers are through routes, often long ones used for distance driving. Three-digit routes that begin with an even number are usually beltways around a city. Three-digit routes that begin with an odd number are spur routes in a city or town. (The Book of Answers, by Barbara Berliner)

Who invented the peace symbol?

It was created in 1958 as a nuclear disarmament symbol by the Direct Action Committee, and it was first shown that year at peace marches in England. The forked symbol is actually a composite of the semaphore signals N and D, representing nuclear disarmament. (The Book of Answers, by Barbara Berliner)

What's in a Face? - male mandrill

The male mandrill beats even the king vulture in the colorful face category. The mandrill, a kind of baboon, is an endangered species found in the rain forests of Africa. Only the males sport these vivid red and blue markings. (Grolier New Book of Knowledge Encyclopedia)

The five qualities that happy families have

Modern living puts a strain on family harmony, but there are things we can do to keep the home fires burning brightly. Experts point to at least five qualities that happy families have:

• love

• appreciation for each other

• open communication

• a willingness to spend time together

• strong leadership

Most specialists say that a loving family starts with a loving marriage. It's the flame that lights the stove that warms the house. "The family is a by-product of the relationship between husband and wife," says Daniel Araoz, Ed.D., past president of the Academy of Psychologists in Marital Sex and Family Therapy, a division of the American Psychological Association.

"The family will stay strong only if the couple keeps the original motivation that brought them together," he says. "They need to feel they are happier together than they are alone, and that they accept each other as they accept themselves. If a couple has those feelings, they'll be passed along to the children."

Broad functional components of human brain

('Boost Your Brain Power', by Ellen Michaud, Russell Wild and the editors of Prevention Magazine)

keeping brain drain at bay

If you need another reason to eat right and exercise, remember this one: These habits will not only keep your body in shape but may also preserve your memory and mental clarity.

Take the oldest diet advice you've ever heard: Eat your vegetables. Researchers at Chicago's Rush Institute for Healthy Aging found that people over 65 who consume about four servings per day slow cognitive decline by 38 percent. The same researchers found that eating fish as infrequently as once a week may lower the risk of Alzheimer's disease by up to 60 percent.

Jogging, swimming, and other forms of aerobic exercise-essential to any disease prevention plan - appear to protect the brain, too. One study of nearly 19,000 women found that the most active participants were the least likely to show signs of memory loss or fuzzy thinking. Studying, reading, and other mental challenges are also linked to a lower risk of dementia. The same is true of coping effectively with emotional stress.

Need further motivation? In a recent study, UCLA researchers asked a group of volunteers to eat healthy diets, exercise, perform brain teasers and memory exercises, and practice stress-reduction techniques. After two weeks, the participants improved their scores on word tests, and MRI scans showed that their brains worked more efficiently. The study's lead author, Gary W. Small, MD, director of the UCLA Center on Aging, concludes, "Living a healthy lifestyle can have an impact." (‘Simple Health Secrets’, by Reader’s Digest)

America’s Other Eagle

Though wise in so many ways, America's Founding Fathers were perhaps poor judges when it came to birds. By an act of Congress in 1782, they chose to adorn the Great Seal of the United States with the bald eagle, an undeniably beautiful bird, but also a mere scavenger and catcher of fish.

Presumably, the members of the Continental Congress sought a symbol of courage and independence to match their hopes for the infant republic; undoubtedly, they wanted a bird embodying the splendor of the new nation and its magnificent virgin lands. So how come they overlooked a choice as good as gold - the golden eagle, that is?

America's "other eagle" is more aggressive, more numerous, more skilled as a hunter, and even a bit larger than its white-headed cousin. Yet it has traditionally been overshadowed by the national symbol. Many Americans, particularly people in parts of the East, where the golden eagle infrequently flies, may not even know the bird exists. Meanwhile, in some areas of the West, the creature's taste for mutton long ago earned it the enmity of sheep ranchers. Today a symbol of the country's wide-open spaces, the magnificent raptor is also a lightning rod for controversy.

Weighing up to 13 pounds (6 kilograms) and with a wingspan of 7 feet (2 meters) or more, the golden eagle is one of the world's largest birds of prey. In North America the only larger raptor is the nearly extinct California condor, now confined to zoos. With that great size comes power, "truly awesome power," in the words of Mike Kochert, research leader at the Snake River Birds of Prey Area in Idaho. "Some smaller raptors may be more aggressive, but for pure energy on the wing," he says, " the golden eagle is tops. "

Early Music (4000 B.C. - 400 A.D.)

Archeological findings of ancient instruments demonstrate that humans have made music from the earliest times. While we don't know how this early music sounded, it's clear that Western music, as we know it, evolved from ancient Near Eastern culture.

Ancient Egyptian society regarded music as a gift from the gods. The appearance and the sound of early musical instruments had symbolic significance in Egyptian culture, where music played an important role in religious practice.

Some of the earliest-known instruments were stringed harps and lutes, known to be played in Egypt as early as 4000 B.C.; lyres and double clarinets were played as early as 3500 B.C. and percussion instruments were added to Egyptian orchestral music ca. 2000 B.C., while the tambourine was known to be used by the Hittites ca. 1500 B.C., along with the guitar, lyre, and trumpet.

All ancient Mesopotamian societies - including the kingdoms of Akkadia, Assyria, Babylonia, Chaldea, and Sumeria - made music central to their religious rites and festivals. Starting around 1800 B.C., Babylonian liturgical services were known to include a variety of psalms and hymns. The musical style was antiphonal, with two different voices alternating in chant. Instruments of the time included harps, flutes, drums, and lyres.

The 1960s – a time of dramatic political and cultural upheaval

The 1960s were a time of dramatic political and cultural upheaval both in the United States and around the globe. Many date the decade's true cultural beginning to November 22, 1963, when President John E Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas, Texas. Kennedy's shocking murder seemed to be the starting point of one of the nation's most turbulent eras, a time marked by further assassinations, urban riots, mass protests, failed presidencies, an unpopular war, and new demands for equal rights and social justice. In that sense, the tumult of the 1960s did not truly end until noon on Aug. 9, 1974, when Richard Nixon became the first U.S. president to resign his office in the wake of the Watergate scandal.

It was Kennedy himself who detected change in the air as he sought to become the nation's first Roman Catholic president in 1960. Kennedy's campaign was based on an explicit critique of the 1950s and the gray-flannel administration of President Dwight D. Eisenhower. Kennedy, as the Democratic Party's nominee, argued that it was time to get the country moving again, a sentiment that many young people - the advance guard of that giant cohort known as the "baby boom” - shared.

But in fields far removed from the campaign trail, the country was already moving in a new direction. Leading the way were thousands of ordinary African Americans who were demanding an end to blatant discrimination in the South and equal justice throughout the country. The civil rights movement was already a powerful force by the time the calendar turned from 1959 to 1960. The new decade ushered in not the movement’s birth but its maturity. (The New York Times ‘Smarter by Sunday – 52 Weekends of Essential Knowledge for the Curious Mind’)

Is an airplane’s black box actually black?

No, it is orange. Inside the box, a stainless-steel tape contains information on the airspeed, altitude, and vertical acceleration. A second orange box contains a tape of the last half-hour of conversation in the cockpit. (The Book of Answers, by Barbara Berliner) 

What language contains the most words?

English is the wordiest language, with approximately 455,000 active words and 700,000 dead words. (The Book of Answers, by Barbara Berliner)

The many health benefits of garlic

Garlic is an herb. It is best known as a flavoring for food. But over the years, garlic has been used as a medicine to prevent or treat a wide range of diseases and conditions. The fresh clove or supplements made from the clove are used for medicine.

Garlic is used for many conditions related to the heart and blood system. These conditions include high blood pressure, high cholesterol, coronary heart disease, heart attack, and “hardening of the arteries” (atherosclerosis). Some of these uses are supported by science. Garlic actually may be effective in slowing the development of atherosclerosis and seems to be able to modestly reduce blood pressure.

Some people use garlic to prevent colon cancer, rectal cancer, stomach cancer, breast cancer, prostate cancer, and lung cancer. It is also used to treat prostate cancer and bladder cancer.

Garlic has been tried for treating an enlarged prostate (benign prostatic hyperplasia; BPH), diabetes, osteoarthritis, hayfever (allergic rhinitis), traveler's diarrhea, high blood pressure late in pregnancy (pre-eclampsia), cold and flu. It is also used for building the immune system, preventing tick bites, and preventing and treating bacterial and fungal infections.

Other uses include treatment of fever, coughs, headache, stomach ache, sinus congestion, gout, rheumatism, hemorrhoids, asthma, bronchitis, shortness of breath, low blood pressure, low blood sugar, high blood sugar, and snakebites. It is also used for fighting stress and fatigue, and maintaining healthy liver function.

Animal products and heart disease

When it comes to heart disease, the evidence against animal products has today become so convincing and so thorough that even many in the livestock industry can see the handwriting on the wall. Dr. Peter R. Cheeke is a professor of animal science at Oregon State University and serves on the editorial boards of the Journal of Animal Science and Animal Feed Science and Technology. In his widely used animal science textbook, he says,

"Many studies, involving hundreds of thousands of people, have shown . . . a positive relationship between coronary heart disease and serum (blood) cholesterol. The higher the serum cholesterol, the higher the risk for coronary heart disease. Populations in which the average serum cholesterol level is (low) . . . are those on the lower end of the per capita meat consumption scale, while those (with high cholesterol levels) are populations with high intakes of animal products. . . . It's more useful to the livestock industries and animal scientists to come to grips with the demonstrated relationships among saturated fat and cholesterol intakes and coronary heart disease, than to claim that there is no relationship or that there's some sort of conspiracy against animal products by the medical community." (‘The Food Revolution: how your diet can help save your life and our world’, by John Robbins) 

The reason why twenty-one is considered the age of legal adulthood

The practice grew out of British common law. Before the Norman invasion, thirteen or fourteen was considered the age of adulthood, at least among the nobility. But during battles, it was observed that thirteen – and fourteen-year-old nobles were not large or strong enough to carry the heavy armor and lance used in fighting. The age was changed to nineteen and then raised to twenty-one, because nineteen-year-olds who inherited estates did not gain their property until two years later, owing to the lengthy legal processes involved. (The Book of Answers, by Barbara Berliner)