During China’s succeeding Warring States Period (481-221
B.C.), only a handful of states survived. Rulers of states used new technology
(such as iron tools) and
management techniques to mobilize populations for military service and
state-supervised agricultural production. It was a time of population growth
and increasing wealth despite near-constant warfare. As rulers looked for new
sociopolitical ideas to enhance their power and security, state patronage of
learning created a class of literate administrators, advisers, and teachers.
The first and most influential Chinese philosopher was
Kongzi (551-479 B.C.), usually known by his Latinate name, Confucius.
Confucius, along with later generations of disciples who elaborated upon his
ideas (Mencius, Xunzi, and others) advocated a hierarchical society in which
the ruler, aided by enlightened ministers, would serve as "father and
mother of the people." The Confucians prized harmony, moderation, ritual,
and historical precedent but disparaged law, which they saw as the enemy of
virtue. Rival thinkers advocated strict codes of law and coercive punishments
to control the populace (Shang Yang, Han Feizi); improved managerial techniques
to make government more effective (Shen Buhai); frugality, universal love, and
self-defense (Mozi); escapism (Yangzi, Zhuangzi); and government by a sage
attuned to the rhythms of cosmic force (Laozi). In practice, government during
the Warring States Period became increasingly bureaucratic and merit-based,
rather than aristocratic and hereditary, as rulers adopted promising ideas and
techniques from various schools of thought. (The New York Times ‘Smarter by
Sunday – 52 Weekends of Essential Knowledge for the Curious Mind’)